New York’s Onassis Foundation Exhibits First Millennium Religious Artifacts
The exhibition, Transition to Christianity: Art of Late Antiquity, 3rd–7th Century AD at New York City’s Onassis Foundation, just off 5th Avenue, breathes new life and fresh understanding into an ages-old narrative. Entering this small, dramatically-lit subterranean gallery for this latest in a series of illuminating shows (see: http://www.artesmagazine.com/2010/01/el-greco-and-the-icon-painters-of-venetian-crete/) evokes similar emotions to those early Christians must have felt as they worshipped clandestinely in caves and catacombs beneath the streets of ancient Rome. But here, scholarship and historical perspective trumps dogma as Transition to Christianity provides an emotionally-charged tour de force of the earliest attempts to codify a nascent belief system that would soon shake the world.
Above: Part of a mosaic pavement with the personification of the month of April. Early 6th century, stone and marble. From Thebes, Chalkis, 23rd Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities. Photo: © Hellenic Ministry of culture and Tourism. artes fine arts magazine
Drawing from both Byzantine and Christian historical materials—this cross-cultural exhibit focuses on the continuation of the antique past, even as it faded into memory; the rise of a Christian empire in the east, even as the western Roman empire disintegrated; and the disruption of old ways of life, as new patterns and social systems were consolidated. Still under the spell of ancient Greek aesthetic influences of Plato and Socrates, these cultural artifacts of the early first millennium, AD, seem to bridge the gap between traditional object d’art and practical pronouncements of belief—between “beauty’ and purposeful messaging. The displays capture the rich diversity that was Late Antiquity, its religious art (Christian, pagan, and Jewish), civic statuary, and architectural and mural decorations from both private homes and public meeting places, as well as cult objects and luxury items, with imagery drawn from mythological and biblical stories. Most importantly, however, the exhibition illustrates the rise of Christianity and its continuity with its past, as Christians borrowed imagery and beliefs from their familiar cultural environment, transforming them forever.
Vibrant and personal, the professing of belief in the new Christian god in the earliest centuries of the first Millennium was dangerous, indeed. As the ancient world slowly collapsed under the weight of its own internal and external threats, the upheaval and co-mingling of political and social beliefs, the introduction of new ideas in art, philosophy and religion co-existing with the old and threats to populations by invading forces from the north and east, made for uncertain times. Known as Late Antiquity, this transition, focused largely on the lands of the eastern Mediterranean, led to a period of tremendous instability and extraordinary cultural innovation as the ancient world faded and a new world of enlightened self-expression was born. Far from slipping into an age of darkness, western civilization was once again on the cusp of a new, risky and far-reaching discovery of its relationship to a re-defined divinity. Once thought to consist of a cadre of the super-powerful and accursed, occupying the remote mountains and skies far above and beyond the reach of mere mortals, the newly-discovered Christian God would, in fact, was believed to dwell among them.
Late Antiquity was an era of profound transition between the world of antiquity and that of the Middle Ages. The three centuries between the founding of the Roman Empire under the emperor Augustus (27 BC–AD 14) and the reign of the emperor Constantine I (305–37) witnessed the birth and growth of a new religion: Christianity. It was Constantine I, also known as Constantine the Great, who made two crucial changes, by granting Christianity the status of state religion in 313 and by moving the capital of the empire from Rome to Constantinople in 330.
The 3rd century marked the historical turning point for the empire, which was besieged from within by economic turmoil and corruption, and from without by “barbarian” tribes on the move. Political upheaval and social anxiety have served as an explanation—if not strictly the cause—for the rise of Christianity, which, once established by Constantine I, eventually brought about a cultural change that often has been viewed negatively, as the beginning of the Dark Ages.
The momentum of Christianity carried with it some violence against the pagan vestiges of the previous era, but Christianity was also a religion of hope, especially for the common man. Classical learning became secondary to a heightened investment in spirituality, which also brought an intense focus on eternal salvation, saintly intercession, and daily interactions with the divine. This was a period not entirely at odds with its classical heritage. Art and architecture flourished, building upon old forms, abandoning others, and creating new ones.
The center of gravity had shifted eastward to the Greek world and beyond, which was vibrantly alive. From Greece to Asia Minor and Syria and throughout the Near East, major cities boasted thriving communities. While the Western Roman Empire fell, in the east arose the cultural stronghold known as the Byzantine Empire.
New investigations into the period of Late Antiquity have expanded eastward as well. Merely describing this period as a poor reflection of an earlier grandeur no longer suffices to explain a world of impressive complexity, syncretism, and interaction. This exhibition provides an opportunity to see Late Antiquity within the context of cultural richness and diversity, produced by vibrant interactions within the grand arena of the eastern Mediterranean.
The End of Antiquity? Cultural and Religious Interactions
Initially, Christianity was a small but rapidly growing cult in an empire with religious practices as diverse as its populace. In addition to the classical pantheon of gods, there were numerous mystery cults, such as that dedicated to the Persian savior Mithras, as well as fertility cults, such as those of Isis and Magna Mater, which had spread throughout the Roman Empire. Many other gods and local and household deities fulfilled a variety of supernatural roles, overseeing the welfare of the living, from marriage and childbirth to illness and death.
The rise of Christianity in this cultural milieu resulted in its adaptation and incorporation of a number of artistic forms and subjects. Portrait statues, sometimes reworked from antique sculptures, and architectural spolia used in new buildings served practical concerns but also demonstrated an appreciation for eclecticism and openness to diverse styles. Christian artists took advantage of familiar imagery, modifying it for Christian congregations in churches, as well as in the more intimate domain of homes and tombs. Artists also sought new ways to express in visual terms the message of Christianity, such as the narratives of the New Testament and Christ’s Triumph over death.
By the end of the 4th century, Christianity was dominant among the empire’s religions, although other forms of worship had by no means been eradicated. Paganism continued, but pagan art and literature became increasingly part of the culture of society’s elite. Thus, subjects from classical mythology could be enjoyed in surviving classical works of art or be redeployed in the creation of new luxury objects.
From Philosophers to Apostles
Over the course of the 3rd and 4th centuries, the apostles of Christ acquired a status similar to that accorded pagan philosophers, who were regarded as venerable teachers and spiritual leaders. The portrayal of apostles in art relied on the adoption of characteristics that best suited their function as Christianity’s first teachers. Philosophers were usually depicted as bearded, sometimes balding, wearing undecorated togas, and holding scrolls. These attributes signified to the viewer that the subject was a contemplative man.
It was not unusual to find portraits of philosophers elevated to the exalted company of deities and emperors. In Aphrodisias in Caria, for example, honorary portraits of the emperors, gods and goddesses, heroes, and esteemed philosophers were erected in public spaces. As late as the 6th century, groups of philosopher statues could be seen decorating civic monuments. Not only were they set up for commemoration, but portraits of prominent figures were also at times even venerated. Pliny (1st century AD) writes that disciples of the philosopher Epicurus carried his portraits in procession at collective celebrations and privately kept his image in their households. The emperor Alexander Severus (d. 235) is said to have honored portraits of gods, deified emperors, philosophers, and even Christ. Nor were Christians immune to this tradition. Saint Augustine of Hippo tells us that his friend Marcellina, the sister of Saint Ambrose of Milan, burned incense and kneeled in front of the images of Christ and the apostle Paul, along with those of Homer and Pythagoras.
As Christianity came to be the dominant religion, images of the apostles gained importance as they, too, became displayed in public spaces, in monumental art of building interiors, and in private settings.
Christianity on the Rise: From Recognition to Authority
Christianity, unlike Judaism, was not at first a recognized, and therefore legalized, religion of the Roman Empire. As a consequence, sporadic and at times intense persecutions of Christians were carried out. The emperor Nero blamed the unpopular Christians of Rome for the great fire in 64 and executed many of them in various grisly ways. Though often unmolested for years, Christians at other times suffered greatly for their religious beliefs and practices.
At the end of the 3rd century, when the empire was in a state of upheaval, the emperor Diocletian divided the administration of the Roman territory between four rulers. The so-called tetrarchic system, however, did not last very long. Constantine I (r. 307–37), ruler of the west, defeated his co-ruler Maxentius in the Battle at the Milvian Bridge in 312, crediting his victory to the sign of Christ under which he had fought. Thereafter, Constantine’s first official edict (313) declared all religions of the empire legal. This made Christianity an officially recognized religion and guaranteed the freedom of public worship. Constantine’s edict came only a few years after one of the most brutal of Christian persecutions carried out under Diocletian.
As the first Christian emperor, Constantine I forever changed the course of the Roman Empire. With the single exception of Julian the Apostate, all subsequent Roman emperors were Christian. Imperial patronage allowed for and indeed actively encouraged the construction and adornment of Christian places of worship, and major churches and shrines were soon built in Rome, the Holy Land, and Constantinople. Christianity set the course for the entire state, as doctrinal and theological disputes precipitated seven ecumenical church councils, beginning with the First Council in 325 convened by Constantine I in Nicaea. In 380, the emperor Theodosios I declared Christianity the official religion of the empire, which gave it an unprecedented religious dominance and marginalized all other religions.
Urban Realities
Roman cities were embodiments of civilization as political and cultural centers and symbols of prosperity and achievement. Their monumental public spaces, linked by portico-lined thoroughfares, forums, baths, and theaters, reminded residentsand visitors alike of the power and fortune of the empire, while temples of the pagan gods stood as symbols of the empire’s divine provenance and stability.
A period of transition that began in the 3rd and 4th centuries witnessed a decline of the quintessential Roman city. A number of the older cities retained some of their luster, but many underwent population shrinkage and physical decay, and only the new imperial capital, Constantinople, flourished. City walls were constructed, indicating vulnerability from external invaders. Exercising its greatly increased power, the Church became one of the principal urban authorities. Its bishops were leading patrons of architecture, constructing numerous church buildings in most urban centers. Temples and other pagan structures became quarries of building material and decorative spoils that were used to create new urban settings and imagery appropriate to the needs of the imperial religion.
Urban elites continued to dominate the city life of a few Late Antique cities, most notably Constantinople. Generous donations to churches, commemorated by inscriptions, provided an effective means of self-promotion and of demonstrating piety. In the private sphere, the wealthy were able to create quite a different effect, with lavishly decorated houses and rich mosaic floors boasting images of abundance or personifications of the months; their reception halls often contained remarkable collections of ancient sculptures with pagan subjects. All of this was at odds with the public display of Christian piety, and on occasion provoked some prominent bishops to speak out against such duplicity of standards.
Daily Life
Life for the common man in Late Antiquity for the most part underwent change slowly, almost imperceptibly. It was disrupted only by random, sometimes catastrophic events that brought on a more rapid rate of change. Worship of the pagan gods continued throughout the 4th century and survived, albeit in a more limited fashion, even into the centuries that followed. Daily life went on as it always had, with people sharing the same concerns as their ancestors—marriage, childbirth, illness, and death.
Nevertheless, gradual but profound change was under way. By the 3rd century, citizens of the Roman Empire had already lost some of their sense of security. Constant pressure at the borders, coupled with internal political, military, and social troubles, contributed to a general anxiety. In search of answers to these problems, citizens increasingly turned to supernatural powers for their security and well-being.
The next three centuries brought about tremendous social changes. Although Christians put their faith in Christ, they also feared various demons and lesser spirits that sought to harm humans. In reaction to these fears, desert monks and holy ascetics rose to great prominence and high esteem, often becoming arbiters of the holy and guardians against evil spirits. They were called on to purge places that were believed to be inhabited by pagan spirits, as the Christians’ own pagan histories still lingered in social consciousness. Prestige and wealth still wielded considerable power, but a sense of democratization began to emerge as Christians from all social levels and backgrounds gathered together in churches to participate in communal services and the commemoration of saints.
Early Christian Worship
The earliest form of Christian worship was focused on communal gatherings within the privacy of a household—either in houses given over entirely to such a role, with individual rooms accommodating various functions, or in meeting halls within larger houses. Little is known about the liturgy during this period. According to Pliny, who presided over trials and executions of Christians in the early 2nd century, the Christian practice was to meet before dawn, sing hymns to Christ, swear oaths to forsake all crimes, and then share a communal meal (probably the so-called agape feast).
After Christians were granted the freedom to worship openly, churches rose across the Roman Empire. The architecture of surviving churches from the 4th through the 6th century reveals aspects of Christian ritual. The nave of the church, appropriating the architecture of the Roman basilica, facilitated the assembly of large crowds. The sanctuary, where the altar was located and the mysteries were celebrated, was at one end of the longitudinal axis of the basilica, and usually, after the 4th century, at its east end. Only clergy and the emperor were allowed in the sanctuary, which was partitioned off from the laity by a low chancel screen. Ambos—raised platforms accessed by stairs—were constructed in church naves to serve as additional focal points for the liturgy and for the reading of the Gospel. The 4th century saw the rise of martyria, buildings constructed to enshrine holy sites or to house relics of Christian martyrs. Martyria engendered and inspired pilgrimage, as Christians believed that relics and the locations of biblical events were imbued with sacred energy.
Theologians viewed the church as a reflection of the heavenly hierarchy and its spaces as symbolic of spiritual ascent. Between the 5th and 7th centuries, the liturgy evolved and was constantly modified by the addition of new rites and chants.
Death and New Life
Over the course of the 4th century, the veneration of martyrs developed into one of the Christian community’s fundamental practices. In the period of Christian persecution, those who willingly went to their death in the name of the faith were considered heroes and therefore worthy of reverence. Christians collectively venerated the martyrs at their tombs, erecting spaces made especially to accommodate visiting pilgrims.
At first, martyria were shrines or small chapels built over burial sites of martyrs, but in the 4th and 5th centuries, grand basilicas and centrally planned buildings provided the venerable Christian dead with considerable public visibility.
The relics of saints were considered potent even when divided and dispersed. By the late 4th century, a major new custom of consecrating all Christian churches with relics placed in reliquaries within or beneath altars came into being. Access to relics was through special small window-like openings that allowed strips of fabric to be lowered into saints’ tombs or oil to be poured into reliquaries, insuring sacred charge through contact with the relics. Oil would be distributed in special small flasks (ampullae). Pilgrimage to martyrs’ shrines and other holy sites—called loca sancta—became an important cultural phenomenon in Late Antiquity. According to Christian belief, these holy places insured access to the supernatural power of the saints.
Typically, Christians were buried in a cemetery or in a family tomb, according to his or her station. Initially, Christian communities shared their cemeteries with other groups, but gradually they began to have separate cemeteries. The interiors of catacomb tomb chambers, graves, and the memoria of the wealthy were decorated with frescoes depicting Biblical stories and Christian symbols. Humbler burial cells were sealed with plaster or marble slabs upon which names and prayers were inscribed and objects such as gold-glass medallions were embedded. Burial ad sanctos, or near a holy site containing the relics of a saint, became the most desirable location for burial, though only the wealthiest and most prominent Christians would receive such an honor.
The Genesis of Christian Art
At first, the visual language of Christians was one of symbols. These symbols—the cross, the Christogram (chi-rho, the initial letters of the name of Christ), the fish, the anchor, and so on—were eventually joined by a broader repertoire of figurative art that appropriated pagan motifs and iconographic formulas and adapted them to a new Christian context. The motif of the vine, previously associated with the god of wine, Dionysos, became a reference to Christ, the “true vine.” The figure of the orant, a personification of piety, became the image of a faithful Christian with hands outstretched in prayer. The image of the shepherd carrying the lamb (kriophoros), common in scenes of idyllic life, became identified as Christ the Good Shepherd. Scenes of Christ’s life and His miracles replaced the mythological stories of pagan heroes on carved sarcophagi.
Ultimately, Christianity triumphed over paganism. This led to an increasing readiness on the part of Christians to appropriate aspects of ancient art for their own purposes. Ecclesiastical art followed funerary art, both pagan and Christian; churches were images of Paradise, filled with lush depictions of rich foliage, Dionysian vines, genre scenes, and fantastic animals that suggested bounty and prosperity. Architectural elements and examples of church furniture demonstrate the appropriation and modification of old forms for new religious needs, such as the “Christianization” of columnar orders and the kivoria (ciboria) above ambos (pulpits). Together with adaptation of old building types for new functions, the basilica (based on the pagan Roman secular building type) and the centrally planned church (based on late Roman mausoleums) collectively reflect a process of transition.
Even while integrating old forms, Late Antique Christians forged a new visual language. Certain artistic modes changed leading to the dominance of two-dimensionality in art, which was deemed ideal for expressing spiritual concepts through physical matter. Perhaps the most ubiquitous of pagan art forms—the portrait of an individual (both three- and two-dimensional)—was gradually replaced by its two-dimensional Christian counterpart, the icon. Depicting Christ, Mary the Mother of God, apostles, or saints, the representational value of the icon was commonly accompanied by miraculous powers possessed by the image itself.
Edited by Richard Friswell, Managing Editor
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Illustrations:
Figure 1. Fragment of a Pavement Mosaic Depiction of Autumn. 4th c. Marble, limestone, glass tesserae. Found in the Siregkella-Antonopoulou plot, Treatrou Street, Argos. Argos Storerooms of Argos Museum. Photo: © Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Tourism.
Fig. 2. Plaque Depicting Herakles and the Hydra. 4th c. Roman bronze, inlaid with copper, brass and silver. Princeton University Art Center, Carl Otto von Keinbusch Jr. Memorial Collection Fund. Photo: ©Trustees of Princeton University.
Fig. 3. Bust from a Herm. Late 2nd –mid-3rd c. Parian marble. Found opposite the southeast corner of the temple of Apollo at Delphi. Delphi, Archeological museum. Photo: © Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Tourism.
Fig. 4. Hexagonal Pendant with Double Solidus of Constantine I. Late 4th c.. Gold. Washington, D.C., Dumbarton Oaks, Byzantine Collection. Photo: © Byzantine Collection, Dumbarton Oaks, Wash.,D.C.
Fig. 5. Corinthian Pilaster Capital with Relief Figure of Kabeiros. Early 4th c. White marble, fine grained. From the Hall of the Octagon in the palace of Galerius, Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki Archeological Museum. Photo: © Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Tourism.
Fig. 6. Female Portrait Bust. Circ, 400. Marble. From Kopanos, near Veroia. Thessaloniki Archeological Museum. Photo: © Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Tourism.
Fig. 7. Marriage Ring of Aristophanes and Vigilantia. Late 4th-early 5th c. Byzantine. Gold. Washington, D.C., Dumbarton Oaks, Byzantine Collection. Photo: © Byzantine Collection, Dumbarton Oaks, Wash.,D.C.
Fig. 8. Cross. 5th c. Gold. Athens, National Archeological Museum, Sathatos Collection. Photo: © Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Tourism.
Fig. 9. Composite Captial with Depiction of Four Rivers of Paradise. 6th c. White marble. Found in early Christian basilica at the “Mnemata” or “Anathema or “Palaiokklesis” site, Thaumakos of Phthiotis Hypati, Byzantine Museum of Phthiotis. Photo: © Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Tourism.
Fig. 10. Tomb Painting with Christogram. Mid-4th c. Fresco on plaster. Found in a tomb in the eastern early Christian cemetery of Thessaloniki. Thessaloniki, Museum of Byzantine Culture. Photo: © Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Tourism.
Fig. 11. Lid of Stone Reliquary. 5th-6th c. Limestone. Athens, Benaki Museum. Photo: © 2011 Benaki Museum, Athens.
Fig. 12. Head of Aphrodite. 1st c. Parian marble. Found near the Tower of the Winds, in the Roman Agora in Athens. Athens National Archeological Museum. Photo: © Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Tourism.
Fig. 13. Plaque with a figure of an Orans Youth in Relief. Late 5th-early 6th c. Ivory. Found in the sanctuary of an early Christian basilica in Paliochora, Maroneia. Kavala, 12th Ephorate of Byzantine Antiquities, Megora,Tokou. Photo: © Hellenic Ministry of Culture and Tourism.
Fig. 14. Gold Solidus of Justinian II (685-95 and 705-11), detail. Mint: Constantinople. Gold. Princeton, Princeton University Numesmatics Collection; purchase 2009 with funds from the Stanley J. Seeger Hellenic Fund. Photo: © Numesmatic Collection, Department of Rare Books and Special Collections, Princeton University Library.
Fig.15. Part of an Icon of Christ. 6th-7th c. Encaustic on wood. From Egypt; acquired in Egypt, 1936. Athens, Benaki Museum. Photo: Benaki Museum, Athens.
Figure 16. Plate with Marriage of David to Michal (128-30). Constantinople workshop. Silver, cast, hammered, engraved, punched, chased. Found at Lambousa, Cyprus. Nicosia, Cyprus Musem. Photo: © Cyprus Museum, Nocosia.
Fig. 17. Mummy Portrait of a Woman (ca. 120). Encaustic on wood, remains of textile. Egypt, Faiyum, probably Hawara. Baltimore, The Walters Art Museum. Photo: © The Walters Art Museum, Baltimore.